干细胞之家 - 中国干细胞行业门户第一站

标题: Cooperation among Microorganisms [打印本页]

作者: 春天的风筝    时间: 2009-4-23 09:08     标题: Cooperation among Microorganisms

Funding. We are pleased to acknowledge the support of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency under grant 344-4065 to Princeton University.' K, U* j' q5 C) P7 O

) a: Y6 s% S( [7 uSeries Editor: Simon. Levin, Princeton University, United States of America$ Z9 f+ j3 e) x# J1 f3 f, [
1 A# m5 D: u, I; \' B
Ned S. Wingreen is Professor in the Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Simon A. Levin is Professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States.% }# l6 K8 v' t7 M

) Y8 r5 U! \3 v( C+ t. _One of the organizing principles of life on Earth is that cells cooperate. This is evident in the case of multicellular organisms, from nematodes to humans, but it also appears to apply widely among single-celled organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and amoeba. In many cases, the label ※single-celled§ applies to only part of the life cycle of these organisms. For example, the model amoeba Dictyostelium discodium is single-celled under conditions of nutritional abundance, but upon starvation, it communicates to form aggregates that subsequently pass through multicellular stages of slug and fruiting body. Indeed, in light of recent discoveries of communication among bacteria and the importance and prevalence of bacterial biofilms, ※single-celled§ may turn out to be a misnomer even for these organisms. Here we highlight some of the better-studied examples of cooperation among microorganisms and attempt to identify some of the important questions in this emerging field. Understanding cooperation among microorganisms presents conceptual and mathematical challenges at the interface of evolutionary biology and the theory of emergent properties of independent agents, two of the most exciting areas in modern mathematical biology./ a  c" R4 I; c" E
1 }2 {9 k# _/ s) A- i& Y$ i
Most of the best-studied cases of cooperation among microorganisms concern intraspecies cooperation. An example of this is quorum sensing among bacteria, in which cells produce, secrete, and detect small molecules, called autoinducers. At high enough autoinducer concentrations (high cell densities), the bacteria enter a new mode of existence characterized by expression of genes associated with collective behaviors that are best carried out in concerted fashion by many cells [1]. These behaviors include the formation of protective biofilms, the expression of virulence factors to attack a host, the production of light, the establishment of competence to exchange DNA (a bacterial form of sexual recombination), and many others. The signaling pathway for one of the better- studied quorum-sensing circuits, that of Vibrio cholerae, the human pathogen, is shown in Figure 1.
/ Y4 K5 }8 j( H& G$ j3 M0 C  @2 y
" u4 ?9 i; r( ^( f4 f! {& F9 d/ H* SAnother well-studied example of intraspecies cooperation concerns the cyanobacterium Anabaena, which grows in long chains, in which approximately one cell out of ten differentiates into a heterocyst that provides fixed nitrogen for the neighboring cells (Figure 2) [2]. Dictyostelium is probably the most-studied model for cooperation among eukaryotic microorganisms, but even in the nonmotile eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae, hyphal growth (that is, filamentous growth) can be viewed as a cooperative mechanism for foraging.
* y9 A3 x! o, A/ B0 E
5 C3 `' P9 e+ r+ DCooperation between different microorganism species is much less understood, or studied, partially for practical reasons, but also because the ubiquity of communication among microorganisms has only recently been appreciated. Nevertheless, it has been clear for many years that bacteria form biofilms on many surfaces (including human teeth, artificial joints, and organs, as well as on the surfaces and in the roots of plants, including crops) that consist of large consortia of different organisms. Moreover, it is clear that, far from being a case of pure Darwinian competition, interactions among these species and with eukaryotic hosts may be mutually beneficial. A recent case in point is the discovery of a mutualistic interaction of four bacterial species with the tomato plant (M. del Gallo, personal communication). Rather than competing, the four species coexist and strongly promote plant growth by fixing nitrogen, providing growth hormones, and preventing hostile bacterial species from growing. Tooth biofilms have been shown to consist of stable consortia of hundreds of distinct species, and bacterial mats are believed to consist of even larger numbers of species, in dynamic equilibrium among themselves, and with multiple bacterial viruses. Interest in bacterial cooperation has been spurred by the discovery that one of the autoinducers, named AI-2 (a furanone), is produced by a wide variety of bacteria, including most known human pathogens, and it may be one of a class of universal interspecies communication molecules [3,4]./ ^+ Z- O8 N- L: U' n- v

1 ^/ r! f$ n( J% o" RThese examples highlight the range of behaviors that could be termed ※cooperation.§ Cooperative behaviors include complex social interactions such as division of labor and mutualism in providing shelter, foraging, reproduction, and dispersal [5]. The examples also highlight the importance of communication in adjusting group behavior to environmental circumstances and population density. Cooperation also has its discontents, and there is growing interest in the role and fate of ※cheaters§ among microorganisms. There is some evidence as well for ※police,§ particularly in the context of bacterial-host interactions, in which host systems favor the growth of symbiotic bacteria but discourage growth of noncooperative, but otherwise identical, cells [6,7]. For a recent review of communication in bacteria that highlights these issues, see [8].
! i' C" s* V6 s2 L0 j+ Y0 C1 z
5 L! r) Y4 N1 }$ C1 F" ?  A$ V1 ^Understanding how cooperation arose and is maintained, particularly among large numbers of species, presents a challenge for practitioners of both molecular biology and evolutionary biology, as well as for theorists. Is cooperation best understood as the convergence of the immediate self-interest of multiple parties Or can evolution lead to stable cases of short-term altruistic behavior, providing long-term benefit for all These questions have been central in evolutionary biology since the time of Darwin, who regarded apparently altruistic behavior as a challenge for his theory. Especially puzzling was the extreme levels of cooperation and altruism, termed eusociality, in the haplodiploid insects and termites.
; V8 W) v" B: k  ~" w
) c/ c2 j. t! l3 E" z0 n& j% dJ. B. S. Haldane elucidated a fundamental principle underlying apparent altruistic behavior when he said that he would lay down his life to save two brothers or eight cousins, reflecting the one-half and one-eighth of his genes he shared with each, respectively. William D. Hamilton formalized these notions in his theory of kin selection, pointing out that the enhanced genetic relatedness of haplodiploid sisters, who share three-quarters of their genes, facilitates ※altruism§ in the haplodiploid species. Subsequent work has shown that kin selection can also work effectively under conditions of low relatedness and, furthermore, is not even necessary for cooperative behavior to arise. Cooperation can similarly be facilitated among unrelated individuals, for example, when the spatial range of interactions is restricted. Kin selection may play a role when limited spatial range is involved, but it is not essential [9]. On the other hand, a limited range of spatial interactions is no guarantee of cooperation; it can just as well lead to spite and selfish behavior, as in the production of allelopathic substances in microorganisms and plants [10]. For reviews of the selective mechanisms leading to cooperation and altruism, see [11–13].1 H4 `; k* u  |8 W. \
: l9 I  z; |! d+ Y& ~
The challenges in understanding cooperation and how it becomes reinforced over evolutionary time to produce stable mutualisms and even multicellularity is at the core of understanding biology. It is key to understanding how complexity arose evolutionarily, how organisms band together and profit from collective decision making, and how populations of diverse organisms interact to produce self-reinforcing networks of mutual benefit. It is also key to understanding the maintenance of ecological communities and patterns of nutrient cycling. The mathematical approaches of the past provide a foundation, but new mathematical techniques drawn from such diverse subjects as dynamical game theory and spatial stochastic processes will be needed to lay bare the essential truths. Considerable progress has been made in the past few years in developing the relevant mathematics, and we are at the threshold of dramatic advances in our understanding of cooperative behavior, one of the central and fundamental issues in biology.
$ L- I$ D1 _' {0 s+ [: t" l- [% k) o* y$ z- h
Acknowledgments
, R2 B8 T7 X0 l9 x& o+ h2 U( ~# K6 ]: L! j# x' l6 H
References
3 M/ }6 P( @0 V% n( S8 z+ c+ Z& a2 J% u. L
Waters CM, Bassler BL (2005) Quorum sensing: Cell-to cell communication in bacteria. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 21: 319–346., l+ y- Y& v, O7 p( e* r

8 T1 v  k5 K" Z, F% ~6 p  w3 v, BZhang CC, Laurent S, Sakr S, Peng L, Bedu S (2006) Heterocyst differentiation and pattern formation in cyanobacteria: A chorus of signals. Mol Microbiol 59: 367–375.9 d2 Y# i3 I: g1 M8 y
0 B! f5 v' a- R/ e3 m/ Z. Q+ o2 X
Surette MG, Miller MB, Bassler BL (1999) Quorum sensing in Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Vibrio harveyi: A new family of genes responsible for autoinducer production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96: 1639–1644.
* E! O- G; c& p" y: ~2 f" @
( n2 h8 j4 b0 P) u- M) BMiller ST, Xavier KB, Campagna SR, Taga ME, Semmelhack MF, et al. (2004) Salmonella typhimurium recognizes a chemically distinct form of the bacterial quorum-sensing signal A1-2. Mol Cell 15: 677–687.
3 M# [7 F: \! q! d  r( U* A: V, M* f6 c+ |1 e3 c* F8 |
Crespi BJ (2001) The evolution of social behavior in microorganisms. Trends Ecol Evol 16: 178–183.1 e; ^/ ?7 m" X$ ]4 t

: V7 @& F: Y' i4 }Kiers ET, Rousseau RA, West SA, Denison RF (2003) Host sanctions and the legume-rhizobium mutualism. Nature 425: 78–81.
3 j% ^  s# M/ G4 p# R/ V8 e. ^3 L, N, i" B5 _
Visick KL, Foster J, Doino J, McFall-Ngai M, Ruby EG (2000) Vibrio fischeri lux genes play an important role in colonization and development of the host light organ. J Bacteriol 182: 4578–4586.. j7 c- c2 }* M7 a4 E$ K( |5 h5 k
2 n# g9 E/ t! ]# h5 j/ W# l! q" B
Keller L, Surette MG (2006) Communication in bacteria: An ecological and evolutionary perspective. Nat Rev Microbiol 4: 249–258.) g% N  u# [' z2 N% j
, @, Z% e6 S* W
Durrett R, Levin SA (1994) The importance of being discrete (and spatial). Theor Popul Biol 46: 363–394.
- k* l, [/ ]' s
. K4 `% @7 i, M$ ?' z. |& UChao L, Levin BR (1981) Structured habitats and the evolution of anti-competitor toxins in bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 78: 6324–6328.2 e: [# J- a4 a( @

8 G2 M$ d, p# T. l7 VSachs JL, Mueller UG, Wilcox TP, Bull JJ (2004) The evolution of cooperation. Quart Rev Biol 79: 135–160., q& w' ]! Z/ s0 d% n. K1 e
% v, y; [6 q% P4 K# z2 y
Lehmann L, Keller L (2006) The evolution of cooperation and altruism. A general framework and a classification of models. J Evol Biol In press.( O( H- f- p2 U- s7 G8 q

1 Q! t7 f4 f8 R, ^West SA, Griffin AS, Gardner A, Diggle SP (2006) Social evolution theory for microorganisms. Nat Rev Microbiol 4: 597–607.(Ned S. Wingreen, Simon A.)
作者: 大小年    时间: 2015-5-31 22:18

真是佩服得六体投地啊  
作者: 123456zsz    时间: 2015-6-14 07:43

人之所以能,是相信能。  
作者: MIYAGI    时间: 2015-6-20 21:10

支持你一下下。。  
作者: dypnr    时间: 2015-7-20 14:35

帮顶  
作者: 剑啸寒    时间: 2015-7-31 14:10

呵呵,等着就等着....  
作者: MIYAGI    时间: 2015-8-21 21:36

干细胞存储  
作者: bluesuns    时间: 2015-9-9 21:53

有空一起交流一下  
作者: 泡泡鱼    时间: 2015-9-12 04:25

琴棋书画不会,洗衣做饭嫌累。  
作者: yukun    时间: 2015-9-15 15:54

是楼主原创吗  
作者: foxok    时间: 2015-9-17 13:35

你加油吧  
作者: 橙味绿茶    时间: 2015-10-9 12:53

站个位在说  
作者: dypnr    时间: 2015-10-17 11:43

我好想升级  
作者: 大小年    时间: 2015-10-21 09:10

是楼主原创吗  
作者: tuanzi    时间: 2015-10-29 11:26

声明一下:本人看贴和回贴的规则,好贴必看,精华贴必回。  
作者: 榴榴莲    时间: 2015-11-12 13:59

21世纪,什么最重要——我!  
作者: 龙水生    时间: 2015-11-24 22:06

貌似我真的很笨????哎  
作者: 剑啸寒    时间: 2015-12-7 16:28

支持你加分  
作者: tuanzi    时间: 2015-12-11 18:57

声明一下:本人看贴和回贴的规则,好贴必看,精华贴必回。  
作者: 张佳    时间: 2015-12-13 13:54

好啊,,不错、、、、  
作者: MIYAGI    时间: 2015-12-27 16:58

希望可以用些时间了~````  
作者: txxxtyq    时间: 2015-12-27 17:25

dc-cik nk  
作者: tempo    时间: 2015-12-29 15:54

也许似乎大概是,然而未必不见得。  
作者: laoli1999    时间: 2015-12-30 08:27

这年头,分不好赚啊  
作者: 红旗    时间: 2015-12-30 13:18

昨晚多几分钟的准备,今天少几小时的麻烦。  
作者: 兔兔    时间: 2016-2-1 20:59

看完了这么强的文章,我想说点什么,但是又不知道说什么好,想来想去只想  
作者: 依旧随遇而安    时间: 2016-3-1 14:10

又看了一次  
作者: vsill    时间: 2016-3-16 15:17

希望大家帮我把这个帖发给你身边的人,谢谢!  
作者: 墨玉    时间: 2016-4-10 11:43

挤在北京,给首都添麻烦了……  
作者: 3344555    时间: 2016-6-3 19:14

呵呵 那就好好玩吧~~~~  
作者: immail    时间: 2016-6-6 13:01

不要等到人人都说你丑时才发现自己真的丑。  
作者: 墨玉    时间: 2016-6-16 15:43

干细胞研究人员的天堂
作者: nauticus    时间: 2016-6-26 16:09

今天再看下  
作者: bluesuns    时间: 2016-8-15 22:18

肿瘤干细胞
作者: tempo    时间: 2016-9-7 09:42

细胞治疗行业  
作者: txxxtyq    时间: 2016-9-26 16:43

不错不错.,..我喜欢  
作者: 我学故我思    时间: 2016-9-26 23:11

干细胞行业  
作者: 咕咚123    时间: 2016-10-2 20:06

不错,感谢楼主
作者: aakkaa    时间: 2016-10-10 18:01

声明一下:本人看贴和回贴的规则,好贴必看,精华贴必回。  
作者: 某某人    时间: 2016-10-23 16:10

给我一个女人,我可以创造一个民族;给我一瓶酒,我可以带领他们征服全世界 。。。。。。。。。  
作者: txxxtyq    时间: 2016-12-9 11:01

神经干细胞
作者: 初夏洒脱    时间: 2016-12-12 08:35

做一个,做好了,请看  
作者: IPS干细胞    时间: 2017-1-31 19:51

呵呵,明白了  
作者: leeking    时间: 2017-1-31 21:06

彪悍的人生不需要解释。  
作者: kaikai    时间: 2017-2-26 04:38

拿把椅子看表演
作者: 碧湖冷月    时间: 2017-3-3 23:44

回复一下  
作者: MIYAGI    时间: 2017-3-4 21:19

干细胞之家是国内最好的干细胞网站了
作者: dmof    时间: 2017-3-15 21:35

谢谢分享  
作者: 安安    时间: 2017-4-19 16:18

每天到干细胞之家看看成了必做的事情
作者: IPS干细胞    时间: 2017-4-19 16:43

我也来顶一下..  
作者: s06806    时间: 2017-4-20 19:38

初来乍到,请多多关照。。。  
作者: txxxtyq    时间: 2017-5-2 13:35

必须顶  
作者: DAIMAND    时间: 2017-5-5 07:16

好人一生平安  
作者: Kuo    时间: 2017-5-12 22:41

楼主福如东海,万寿无疆!  
作者: 8666sea    时间: 2017-5-14 01:16

站个位在说  
作者: 风云动    时间: 2017-5-27 05:15

我的妈呀,爱死你了  
作者: 安安    时间: 2017-6-17 21:33

围观来了哦  
作者: 与你同行    时间: 2017-6-21 14:43

每天到干细胞之家看看成了必做的事情
作者: 蝶澈    时间: 2017-6-26 21:25

好困啊  
作者: keanuc    时间: 2017-7-10 20:58

留个脚印```````  
作者: 快乐小郎    时间: 2017-7-11 23:40

照你这么说真的有道理哦 呵呵 不进沙子馁~~~  
作者: abc987    时间: 2017-7-13 09:27

好啊,谢楼主
作者: ines    时间: 2017-7-15 12:02

挤在北京,给首都添麻烦了……  
作者: 狂奔的蜗牛    时间: 2017-7-17 14:01

我想要`~  
作者: 蝶澈    时间: 2017-7-22 22:02

今天没事来逛逛  
作者: 泡泡鱼    时间: 2017-7-28 23:07

谁能送我几分啊  
作者: leeking    时间: 2017-7-30 14:54

不早了 各位晚安~~~~  
作者: mk990    时间: 2017-8-4 12:36

今天没事来逛逛,看了一下,感觉相当的不错。  
作者: 加菲猫    时间: 2017-8-22 13:34

家财万贯还得回很多贴哦  
作者: 命运的宠儿    时间: 2017-8-23 14:02

终于看完了~~~  
作者: 陈晴    时间: 2017-9-4 14:26

应该加分  
作者: 咖啡功夫猫    时间: 2017-9-13 10:01

给我一个女人,我可以创造一个民族;给我一瓶酒,我可以带领他们征服全世界 。。。。。。。。。  
作者: Kuo    时间: 2017-9-25 18:13

干细胞分化技术
作者: 舒思    时间: 2017-10-1 10:09

就为赚分嘛  
作者: Kuo    时间: 2017-10-3 13:18

看看..  
作者: 碧湖冷月    时间: 2017-10-8 13:08

@,@..是什么意思呀?  
作者: kaikai    时间: 2017-10-19 11:18

好贴坏贴,一眼就看出去  
作者: 海小鱼    时间: 2017-10-31 03:24

我回不回呢 考虑再三 还是不回了吧 ^_^  
作者: awen    时间: 2017-11-25 07:38

先看看怎么样!  
作者: nauticus    时间: 2017-11-25 18:01

人之所以能,是相信能。  
作者: xm19    时间: 2018-1-11 18:14

活着,以死的姿态……  
作者: 小敏    时间: 2018-1-21 06:24

好贴坏贴,一眼就看出去  
作者: tian2006    时间: 2018-1-23 02:43

只有一条路不能选择——那就是放弃的路;只有一条路不能拒绝——那就是成长的路。  
作者: 快乐小郎    时间: 2018-1-28 16:18

干细胞研究重在基础
作者: 与你同行    时间: 2018-1-29 01:18

肌源性干细胞
作者: 草长莺飞    时间: 2018-2-8 22:25

好帖,有才  
作者: 黄山    时间: 2018-2-10 11:09

哈哈,看的人少,回一下  
作者: 剑啸寒    时间: 2018-2-13 19:30

真是有你的!  
作者: beautylive    时间: 2018-3-4 09:42

偶真幸运哦...  
作者: 张佳    时间: 2018-3-13 08:10

我也来顶一下..  
作者: 3344555    时间: 2018-3-23 20:43

声明一下:本人看贴和回贴的规则,好贴必看,精华贴必回。  
作者: keanuc    时间: 2018-4-13 22:17

间充质干细胞
作者: marysyq    时间: 2018-4-29 09:27

牛牛牛牛  
作者: lab2010    时间: 2018-5-2 20:29

不错,看看。  
作者: pcr    时间: 2018-5-5 22:23

孜孜不倦, 吾等楷模 …………  
作者: 蝶澈    时间: 2018-5-7 06:59

强人,佩服死了。呵呵,不错啊  
作者: apple0    时间: 2018-5-14 02:02

一楼的位置好啊..  
作者: SCISCI    时间: 2018-5-21 22:41

不早了 各位晚安~~~~  
作者: 咕咚123    时间: 2018-5-31 17:42

干细胞之家是不错的网站
作者: abc987    时间: 2018-6-1 10:18

小生对楼主之仰慕如滔滔江水连绵不绝,海枯石烂,天崩地裂,永不变心.  




欢迎光临 干细胞之家 - 中国干细胞行业门户第一站 (http://www.stemcell8.cn/) Powered by Discuz! X1.5