标题: Progenitor Cells from the Porcine Neural Retina Express Photoreceptor Markers Af [打印本页] 作者: 江边孤钓 时间: 2009-3-5 00:54 标题: Progenitor Cells from the Porcine Neural Retina Express Photoreceptor Markers Af
作者：Henry Klassena,b, Jens Folke Kiilgaardc, Tasneem Zahirb, Boback Ziaeiana, Ivan Kirova, Erik Scherfigc, Karin Warfvinged, Michael J. Youngb作者单位：aStem Cell Research, Children & t" L/ N5 Z& h$ E1 B, N' D L0 d0 c$ z6 a$ V
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【摘要】 $ ]( B3 ?& f+ R9 x) ~7 z2 c4 _ Work in rodents has shown that cultured retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) integrate into the degenerating retina, thus suggesting a potential strategy for treatment of similar degenerative conditions in humans. To demonstrate the relevance of the rodent work to large animals, we derived progenitor cells from the neural retina of the domestic pig and transplanted them to the laser-injured retina of allorecipients. Prior to grafting, immunocytochemical analysis showed that cultured porcine RPCs widely expressed neural cell adhesion molecule, as well as markers consistent with immature neural cells, including nestin, Sox2, and vimentin. Subpopulations expressed the neurodevelopmental markers CD-15, doublecortin, ¦Â-III tubulin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein. Retina-specific markers expressed included the bipolar marker protein kinase C and the photoreceptor-associated markers recoverin and rhodopsin. In addition, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed expression of the transcription factors Dach1, Hes1, Lhx2, Pax6, Six3, and Six6. Progenitor cells prelabeled with vital dyes survived as allografts in the subretinal space for up to 5 weeks (11 of 12 recipients) without exogenous immune suppression. Grafted cells expressed transducin, recoverin, and rhodopsin in the pig subretinal space, suggestive of differentiation into photoreceptors or, in a few cases, migrated into the neural retina and extended processes, the latter typically showing radial orientation. These results demonstrate that many of the findings seen with rodent RPCs can be duplicated in a large mammal. The pig offers a number of advantages over mice and rats, particularly in terms of functional testing and evaluation of the potential for clinical translation to human subjects." r4 |( i. y7 t$ u
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Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article. 9 A" ]3 L) ?0 ?3 o 【关键词】 Stem cells Photoreceptor Rhodopsin Recoverin Transducin Swine / P2 N1 u0 K5 o9 k INTRODUCTION O( b; E6 D" a k
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There has been recent interest in identifying and culturing stem and progenitor cells from the central nervous system (CNS). On the one hand, studies of this type provide insights into the cellular mechanism underlying CNS development . Encouraging results such as these have raised the possibility of applying CNS progenitor cell transplantation to patients with retinal degenerative disorders. ! r: |& k3 V4 a* n ' C9 w9 F' U# x! N; a: eA major challenge facing translational efforts with respect to transplantation of stem and progenitor cells to the CNS is the need for more predictive animal models. Although rodents continue to play a pivotal role in basic science research, the further development of scientific breakthroughs into new cell-based therapeutic modalities is hampered by the disparity between rodents and humans in terms of both the underlying biology and the surgical anatomy. This is particularly true in the eye. / h7 p5 d4 f3 K, D& E: F( L, ?( \/ N U! e X( M ^ V* q A6 w9 B
One animal that has proven particularly useful for modeling human subretinal surgery is the pig . N- a8 ~& q! a) p; S1 ^5 E" D" Q; y2 A0 t
Here we show that progenitor cells can be propagated from fetal porcine retina (porcine retinal progenitor cells ) and that these cells express a range of well-established immature neurodevelopmental and retinal markers in culture. The pRPCs also express mature markers after differentiation, including the rod photoreceptor marker rhodopsin, both in culture and following transplantation to the subretinal space of allogeneic recipients. % [$ U0 j* K8 n: R6 O4 u7 b. m4 O2 f$ K& [: X4 w* h& ?
MATERIALS AND METHODS ! g0 @! Z* F; x: Z6 x/ j5 B 1 f4 F1 m$ f2 {9 t1 C7 oDonor Animals9 T( S. O( u; b* v
" {3 {/ v) u, u) Y7 q Y* hA pregnant sow was placed under general anesthesia, the uterine horns and fetuses were removed, and the sow was terminated prior to waking. Work was performed according to an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee-approved protocol. All tissues were obtained in compliance with NIH and institutional guidelines.: t$ {% D0 Q' Q! `% w6 d# m" A- }6 }' }
2 o8 d0 v4 u- q6 ACell Isolation and Culture, x6 x' ^$ |/ V: t5 l
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The techniques used for isolation of human RPCs were described previously . The present isolation followed a similar protocol, in this case using fetal pigs collected at 60 days of gestation (typical gestational period in pig being 114 days). Briefly, the eyes were removed, the sclera and choroid were incised and reflected, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) was opened by tangential traction, and the neural retina was extruded from the globe and cut free from attachments along its periphery and at the optic nerve head. Pooled retinal tissue was minced and enzymatically digested, and the liberated cells were washed and cultured at high density in fibronectin-coated flasks containing Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/Ham's F-12 medium with high glucose (Irvine Scientific, Irvine, CA, http://www.irvinesci.com), L-glutamine (200 mM), BIT9500 (10% by volume; Stem Cell Technologies, Vancouver, BC, Canada, http://www.stemcell.com), epidermal growth factor (EGF) (20 ng/ml), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (40 ng/ml), and antibiotics. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) (10% by volume) was included overnight, and the medium was completely changed the next day with growth factors reduced to 20 ng/ml. Subsequently, cells were fed by 50% medium exchange every 2¨C3 days and passaged at confluence using Cell Dissociation Buffer (Gibco, Grand Island, NY, http://www.invitrogen.com), centrifugation, and gentle trituration.9 R# F, H- z0 [- ~% {& x
. T! Q8 ]0 Z8 [* H' I7 vDifferentiation in Culture " K' r/ |) T4 j( T0 _" e+ { L' L: o9 X* W) Y- p
To differentiate cultured cells, growth medium was replaced with medium without mitogens but containing either FBS or ciliary neurotrophic factor. Specifically, neurospheres were grown for 24 hours in complete growth medium containing EGF and bFGF on tissue culture slides coated with either poly-D-lysine and laminin or fibronectin to generate adherent retinal progenitor cells. The complete cell culture medium was then removed, and the cells were washed with Ca2 - and Mg2 -free Hanks' balanced salt solution (HBSS) (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, http://www.invitrogen.com). Fresh medium containing CNTF (20 ng/ml; R&D Systems) or 10% FBS, but no EGF or bFGF, was added to the experimental wells/flasks. The differentiation medium was changed every 3 days and the cells maintained for up to 7 days.. A( A# F; L4 c" v! ]. h
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Immunocytochemistry7 g$ M5 u; j B$ p3 z- T' r
2 Z# n* a1 t% V1 q6 W' X/ Q7 U/ QLive cells grown on chamber well slides were fixed for 10 minutes in 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (Irvine Scientific). The fixed cells were washed with PBS containing 0.05% (wt/vol) sodium azide. A blocking solution consisting of Tris-buffered saline (TBS) 0.3% Triton X-100 3% donkey serum (Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA, http://www.jacksonimmuno.com) was then applied for 15 minutes. Cells were subsequently rinsed twice in 0.1 M TBS buffer. Primary antibodies were diluted in 250 µl of antibody buffer (TBS 0.3% Triton X-100 1.0% donkey serum) at concentrations determined through usage in the laboratory (Table 1). Primary antibodies were applied to the samples and left at 5¡ãC overnight and then rinsed twice with TBS the next day. Secondary antibodies were donkey-derived and diluted 1:100 in antibody buffer or goat-derived and diluted 1:800 (Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories). Secondary antibodies were applied and left at 5¡ãC overnight. The following day, samples were rinsed for 5 minutes with TBS three times. Slides were mounted with Prolong Antifade Kit (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, OR, http://probes.invitrogen.com). Digital images obtained with an Olympus Ix70 Microscope and Optronics Quantifire CCD camera (Tokyo, http://www.olympus-global.com). Electronic image files were managed using Image Pro Plus 4.0 software with AFA plugin 4.5 (Media Cybernetics, Bethesda, MD, http://www.mediacy.com).( K/ Q! r3 x2 \2 L
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Table 1. Primary antibodies for immunocytochemistry3 `# m( x0 ^# T1 e; j, [# J
2 O! {4 N5 G6 X* c6 g+ i) q8 CImmunoblot Analysis & L5 p& Q# K) g1 E + j! }1 o1 |9 p2 A A$ Y. |Retinal progenitor cells or fetal porcine retinas (60 days gestation) were homogenized in lysis buffer (1% Triton X-100, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 5 mM EDTA, 50 mM NaCl, 50 mM NaF) containing protease inhibitor cocktail (1:100 dilution; Sigma-Aldrich) and phosphatase inhibitor (1:100 dilution; Sigma-Aldrich). Protein levels of total cell lysates were quantified with a protein assay kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, http://www.bio-rad.com). The protein samples (20 µg) were separated on polyacrylamide gels (NuPage; Invitrogen) for 40 minutes at 160 V and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Invitrolon; Invitrogen) for 60 minutes at 30 V. After transfer, the membranes were blocked in 5% nonfat dry milk in TBS-T (10 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20) for 30 minutes. The blots were incubated with the following primary antibodies: glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (1:1000 dilution; Chemicon), protein kinase C (PKC) (1:200 dilution; Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.), and Recoverin (1:1,000 dilution; Chemicon). Subsequently, blots were incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated species-specific secondary antibodies, and the signals were visualized with the enhanced chemiluminescence Western blotting detection system (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ, http://www.amersham.com).) [9 {" @$ z6 C2 G$ o/ M9 ^
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Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction. {' q+ Y ]8 V! }' }" z! `
' |1 Y; f+ N3 P- _; Z/ g5 dTotal RNA was extracted from progenitor cells at 3 weeks in culture (passage 4) using Purescript RNA Isolation Kit (Gentra, Valencia, CA, http://www.gentra.com), according to the manufacturer's protocol. Residual genomic DNA was eliminated with DNase (DNA-free; Ambion, Austin, TX, http://www.ambion.com). Extracted RNA was then reverse transcribed using Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MLV) reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen). Negative controls were performed that contained RNA, but no M-MLV reverse transcriptase, to further eliminate the possibility that polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product resulted from amplified genomic DNA. Automated PCR was carried out in a final volume of 50 µl with 3 µl of cDNA template, 0.75 µl of forward and reverse primers (0.5 µg/µl) (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany, http://www1.qiagen.com) (Table 2), and 1.25 units of Taq DNA polymerase (Amersham Biosciences) in a Techne Genius thermocycler. Primer designs were based on human gene sequences. Initial denaturation for 4 minutes at 94¡ãC was followed by 30 cycles of 1 minute at 94¡ãC, 1 minute at the corresponding annealing temperature, and 1 minute at 72¡ãC. The final step consisted of 7 minutes of extension at 72¡ãC. Products were run on 2% agarose gels and visualized with ethidium bromide against a 100-base pair ladder.7 S% N1 ^" t9 P5 `4 n0 L
- |; t$ L4 J2 u9 KTable 2. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction primers and conditions 6 v* H- |2 j1 z; T$ u! Z& j. m- d' ~# J
Recipient Animals and Surgery 0 I0 J5 a# r" Z& P e 8 K- ^! l" p; L; ]Twelve female domestic pigs (Danish Landrace breed; age, 4 months; approximate weight, 30 kg) were used as recipients. Prior to surgery, animals were given intramuscular injections of 15 mg/ml midazolam (DormicumA; Roche, Hvidovre, Denmark, http://www.roche.com) and a 3-ml composition of 11.9 mg of zolazepam (Zoletin 50 Vet; Virbac SA, Carros, France, http://www.virbaccorp.com) and 11.9 mg of tiletamine (Zoletin) mixed with 12.38 mg/ml xylazine (Intervet, Skovlunde, Denmark, http://www.intervet.com), 14.29 mg/ml ketamine (Intervet), and 2.38 mg/ml methadone (Nycomed, Roskilde, Denmark, http://www.nycomed.com). Endotracheal intubation was performed, and the pigs were artificially ventilated and anesthetized with 2%¨C3% isoflurane (Abbott, Solna, Sweden, http://www.abbott.com) in combination with oxygen. Stroke volume (300 ml/stroke) and respiratory frequency (12 breaths per minutes) were held constant throughout the duration of the surgery. The left pupil was dilated, and the cornea was anesthetized with topical drops consisting of 0.4% oxybuprocain (SAD, Copenhagen, Denmark), 10% Metaoxedrin (SAD), 0.5% Mydriacyl (Alcon, Belgium, http://www.alconlabs.com), 1% atropine (SAD), and 5% povidone-iodine (SAD). Surgery was restricted to the left eye in all animals. % l2 l+ e, |( V- \) G1 q ) o& r- u4 }1 Z3 M) ]Using a localized three-port pars plana vitrectomy, the central and posterior vitreous was removed, together with the posterior hyaloid membrane. To promote integration of grafted pRPCs into the host retina, focal damage was induced in all 12 animals via application of green argon laser burns to the area centralis, as described previously . Laser parameters and number of burns applied are shown for each animal in Table 3. A bleb was then elevated in the area of laser burns by subretinal injection of 0.25¨C0.5 ml of 0.9% NaCl through a 41-gauge needle. Endodiathermy was applied to the detached retina prior to enlargement of the retinotomy for transplantation.! V% s p' d+ e2 j4 V9 R$ @) F# `* ?' u
6 k: `" H9 H# F" [; CTable 3. Parameters of the laser lesions $ f1 B: A% l4 g; m) j/ B1 @1 e/ {" k0 u/ z8 Z X
To prelabel the cells prior to transplantation, cultured pRPCs were incubated for 5 minutes with one or more vital dyes, followed by three washes in HBSS with gentle centrifugation. These included a non-nuclear vital dye used to visualize donor cell morphology; a lipophilic dye, either PKH26 (red fluorochrome; 2 x 106 M; Sigma-Aldrich) or PKH67 (green fluorochrome; 2 x 106 M; Sigma-Aldrich); and, in some cases, the nuclear dye 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) (10 µg/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) as well. Prelabeled pRPCs were injected as a single cell suspension containing approximately 2 x 107 cells into the retinal bleb using a 20-, 25-, or 27-gauge metal cannula, with or without silicon tip. Immediate reflux of some cells into the vitreous cavity was frequently observed. An air bubble was placed under the retinotomy to prevent additional reflux after withdrawal of the cannula. Chloramphenicol (SAD) was applied to the conjunctiva and ocular surface after completion of surgery. The pigs were examined weekly by ophthalmoscopy to clinically evaluate all operated eyes, with particular attention to the vitreous, retina, and transplantation site.% U% H5 n D* v* |, a: g) d
' [4 o* X! v9 z9 G4 T+ PThe research protocol used here was approved by the Danish Animal Experiment Inspectorate and is also in accordance with the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research. # u( n' c! c+ E. |0 D# X# n: P; Q9 K5 z/ |5 R7 e F& W
Tissue Processing 0 [% X5 t; P9 i0 g7 ~4 \/ ?! n # T" k2 X* U( SEyes were enucleated under anesthesia at 30 minutes (n = 1), 1 week (n = 4), 2 weeks (n = 4), and 5 weeks (n = 3) post-transplantation (Table 4). Following removal of globes, pigs were sacrificed by i.v. injection of 2¨C4 g of pentobarbital (200 mg/ml; KVL, Copenhagen, Denmark, http://www.kvl.dk). Intact globes were placed in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) for 10¨C20 minutes. For each eye, the anterior segment, with lens, was then removed, and the posterior segment was postfixed for 2 hours in 4% PFA, followed by rinsing in increasing concentrations of sucrose containing Sörensen's phosphate buffer. A horizontal slice was made from the temporal retinal margin to 2¨C3 mm nasal to the optic disc, thus comprising the temporal ciliary margin, the area centralis, and the optic disc. These tissues were embedded in a gelatin medium, and a series of 12-µm sections were cut on a cryostat. Every 10th slide was stained with H&E.! l: {* w- \+ b! P. ^7 n: C5 P
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Table 4. Transplantation of porcine retinal progenitor cells to the subretinal space of allogeneic recipients( x8 N E" ~( |
. Q: u( C$ ?# q8 D/ X# QImmunohistochemistry+ d+ p+ p" D% L. u7 b! ~
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Ocular tissue sections were exposed to primary anti-sera (Table 1) for 16¨C18 hours in a moist chamber at 4¡ãC, followed by rinsing in 0.1 M PBS with 0.25% Triton X-100. Tissue sections were then incubated with secondary fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or Texas Red-conjugated antibodies (1:200; Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories) for 1¨C2 hours in the dark at room temperature. The nonoperated contralateral eyes served as normal controls. There were additional negative controls from the operated eyes in which the primary antisera were omitted. Specimens were examined using an epifluorescence microscope. Colocalization of FITC or Texas Red-labeled primary antibodies and DAPI cells was assessed by superimposition of separate digital images of each fluorochrome.3 W; D8 ?9 G& ?; `: c6 z. U7 a: \. H
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RESULTS 8 n3 }, N+ |5 P" g f5 C' q0 t' a* x! \2 f# Y$ k
Cell Isolation and Culture$ @. @0 [& ]# p4 T1 z w
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With short-term exposure to serum, isolated fetal porcine retinal cells quickly adhered to fibronectin or laminin substrates and remained adherent after FBS was removed. Adherent cultures showed high short-term viability, as evidenced by a relative paucity of suspended cells or debris. There was morphological evidence of active proliferation, seen as numerous dividing profiles and rapid increase in the density of the monolayer. Cellular morphologies were similar to those observed in other neural progenitor cultures (Fig. 1A, 1B) and showed features in common with cultured progenitors from immature porcine forebrain . In the absence of substrate, many cells remained suspended and via proliferation quickly generated the classic cellular clusters commonly referred to as neurospheres (Fig. 1A). Qualitative comparison of porcine retinal cultures suggested similar short-term survival when grown in growth media containing EGF, bFGF, or both. " a% Y* q& Z5 ~6 a' z; Z$ S- ]! \% s% |' G" S0 E0 H
Figure 1. Cell cultures from the fetal porcine neural retina. Cells grew as suspended aggregates (spheres) in uncoated tissue culture flasks (A) or as an adherent monolayer on substrates such as fibronectin (B) or laminin. Magnification, x100 (A), x200 (B). 7 o" p+ M7 J$ f ! F, i; U& i a; uMarker Expression in Culture* X6 ?2 v/ Z1 v% \, r* P
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Porcine RPC cultures exhibited widespread expression of a number of immature markers by immunocytochemistry (Fig. 2), including the nuclear transcription factor Sox2 (Fig. 2D), as well as the proliferation marker Ki67 (data not shown), along with subpopulations of cells expressing the surface carbohydrate moiety CD15 (LeX) (Fig. 2A) and the cytoskeletal-associated proteins doublecortin (DCX) (Fig. 2A), GFAP (Fig. 2B), ¦Â-III tubulin (Fig. 2C), and vimentin (Fig. 2D). We previously reported difficulties demonstrating nestin expression in porcine forebrain progenitors using a number of antibodies . Furthermore, although some cells expressed PKC, consistent with bipolar cell differentiation, there was no evidence of double labeling for recoverin and PKC, as would be expected if the recoverin labeling was from bipolar cells (Fig. 2E). Estimated marker expression as a percentage of cells in culture was as follows: CD15, 20%; NCAM, 90%; DCX, 11%; GFAP, 27%; ¦Â-III tubulin, 9%; recoverin, 36%; Sox2, >95%; vimentin, >95%; PKC, 12%; nestin, >95%. 9 Q! a! X, Z7 {/ Q' x; W( ?% T, R+ f3 |2 R9 m0 S) |# g' f
Figure 2. Marker expression by cultured porcine retinal progenitor cells (pRPCs). (A): Cultured pRPCs showed widespread expression of the surface marker NCAM (green) and more restricted expression of the surface marker CD15 (red). (B): Expression of the neuroblast marker doublecortin (red) was restricted to a subset of small round cells, seen here against low-level labeling for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (green). (C): Other markers showing restricted expression included the early neuronal marker ¦Â-III tubulin (red) and the retinal marker recoverin (green). There was widespread nuclear expression of the transcription factor Sox2 (red), as well as widespread cytoplasmic expression the intermediate filament vimentin (blue), whereas the intermediate filament GFAP (green) (D) showed limited expression. (E): The bipolar cell marker protein kinase C (green) was also expressed by a subset of cells that differed from those expressing the photoreceptor marker recoverin (red). (F): The intermediate filament nestin (red) showed cytoplasmic localization in cells counterstained with the nuclear marker 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (green). Magnification, x400 (A¨CE), x200 (F). & @' C/ H% C9 N. A+ _0 ]9 {% |- G& n* f
Although recoverin is known to be expressed in vivo by a subset of rod bipolar cells, the double labeling for recoverin and rhodopsin shown here under differentiation conditions is consistent with rod photoreceptors, and the morphology of these cells is suggestive of photoreceptors as well (Fig. 3). A3 _( g# C& Q, z3 }
1 Z( v }& y9 O% tFigure 3. Colocalization of rhodopsin and recoverin in porcine retinal progenitor cells (pRPCs). Differentiating pRPCs expressed the photoreceptor markers recoverin (green) (A) and rhodopsin (red) (B), with co-expression of the two markers seen in a subset of cells (C). Cells co-expressing rhodopsin and recoverin frequently exhibited morphologies suggestive of rod photoreceptors. 2 H# K$ f6 L4 ^% ]3 u! t2 _; k i- H- o
Immunoblot data comparing porcine retinal tissue to cultured porcine RPCs confirmed the expression of recoverin and PKC by cells from both populations, (Fig. 4). GFAP was clearly expressed in retinal tissue but only faintly detected in RPCs. 7 h# u% l6 Q1 o: z, I4 O$ _ * {* z) L2 C% I' l C% `: yFigure 4. Immunoblot analysis of E60 fetal porcine retina versus cultured porcine RPCs. GFAP was clearly expressed in developing retinal tissue but only faintly detected in RPCs, whereas recoverin and PKC were expressed in both. Abbreviations: GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; PKC, protein kinase C; RPC, retinal progenitor cell. 8 X6 u2 e; \0 ~" w6 A3 K E. ]& B- a4 v
To further characterize porcine RPCs, extracted RNA was analyzed using reverse transcription-PCR (Fig. 5). The product for the human nestin transcript was faint, as previously reported for porcine forebrain progenitors using these primers . Other genes associated with the developing retina were also examined, with particular emphasis on nuclear transcription factors (NTFs). The finding of Sox2 expression, seen above using immunocytochemistry (ICC), was replicated at the transcript level. Hes1, another NTF expressed during neural development, was also present. In addition, a number of NTFs previously associated with eye specification and retinal development in vertebrates were identified in porcine RPCs. These include Lhx2, Six3, Six6, Dach1, and Pax6, with the signal for Pax6 being the weakest among these (Fig. 5). In terms of non-NTF genes, transcripts for the intermediate filament GFAP and the neuroblast-associated protein DCX were evident as well (Fig. 4), again replicating findings seen by ICC./ F* ]1 C1 `2 N2 x! L
9 o2 A: i# o. `3 FFigure 5. RT-PCR analysis of gene expression by retinal progenitor cells (RPCs). Primers designed for human genes were used to probe RNA extracted from cultured porcine RPCs. Evidence was found for expression of nestin (faint), GFAP, Lhx2, Hes1, Dach1, DCX, Six3, Six6, Sox2, and Pax6 (faint). Alternating lanes contain sample with ( ) and without (¨C) reverse transcriptase, the latter serving as negative control. Ladders (100 base pairs) provided for reference. Abbreviations: DCX, doublecortin; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; RT-PCR, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. 0 u' W; X4 m9 s0 L& ^; g0 M$ b' M1 q8 A: J* j' \/ m3 l# k
Transplantation 7 T+ {9 ^4 o1 V5 r& e 3 E, Z$ Y5 o; p+ |/ R( k% u; G; VPrelabeled donor cells were identified in 11 of 12 allograft recipients (Table 4). There was evidence of graft survival at all time points from 30 minutes to 5 weeks. Survival was quite substantial in all animals at 1 and 2 weeks but variable at 5 weeks. These cells were frequently located in the subretinal space (Fig. 6A¨C6H), although there was also evidence of labeled cells and processes within the neural retina (supplemental online Fig. 7). In terms of evidence for migration, the lateral limit for labeled cells was 4 mm from the injection bleb. Despite evidence of some diffusion of DAPI and uptake by host retinal cells, the bulk of cells in the subretinal space exhibited brighter DAPI labeling and could be readily distinguished from the well-organized cells of the host. Many of these subretinal (presumed donor) cells double-labeled for DAPI and photoreceptor-associated markers, including transducin (Fig. 6A, 6B), rhodopsin (Fig. 6C, 6D), and recoverin (Fig. 6E, 6F). A subset of cells were found to express GFAP (Fig. 6G, 6H). No evidence of perivascular cuffing or other signs of PMN or mononuclear cell infiltration were observed in H&E-stained sections (data not shown).! w# m0 @. H1 @' g6 y/ E( x
" X& K/ v8 S" D8 x7 W# A1 z$ SFigure 6. Transplantation of porcine retinal progenitor cells (pRPCs) to the subretinal space of allogeneic recipients. Cultured pRPCs were prelabeled with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) (blue) prior to transplantation. DAPI is seen in the left panel of each row. The middle panel in each row shows immunoreactivity for a particular marker. The right panel in each row is a merged image of the two panels to the left. Following transplantation, donor cells (blue) co-expressed the photoreceptor marker transducin (red) (). Superficial as well as deep, radially oriented GFAP host profiles were evident (G), and colocalization of DAPI and GFAP was also seen (arrows) (H). Scale bars = 100 µm. Abbreviations: GCL, ganglion cell layer; INL, inner nuclear layer; IPL, inner plexiform layer; ONL, outer nuclear layer; RPE, retinal pigment epithelium.8 U, i8 l3 \, b* S1 y5 ]2 ~( u
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Figure 6. (Continued) 9 w- f" S* `2 j7 z ; j* Q% z# ?: C) R* d# I- M2 g* ZFigure 7. Donor cells prelabeled with both 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI, blue) and PKH26 (red) showed extension of donor-derived processes into the inner retina (arrows). Abbreviations: INL, inner nuclear layer; IPL, inner plexiform layer., @. O% P6 I0 m d, k7 a( Q
9 C4 ]) t4 ^8 A4 QDISCUSSION' R' z. P: G) G) j$ o7 Z y) E
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In this study, we show that progenitor cells can be cultured from the retina of the pig, the first demonstration of ex vivo cultivation of retinal progenitor cells from a nonhuman large animal. The pRPCs proliferate in vitro and express NTFs implicated in retinal specification, as well as other markers generally associated with CNS development. In the presence of serum, a subset of pRPCs co-express recoverin and rhodopsin, evidence of differentiation into cells of retinal lineage, namely, rod photoreceptors. The availability of porcine RPCs allows us to compare the characteristic of these cells to RPCs from rodents and humans. Potential points of comparison include isolation and culture techniques, cellular morphology, and gene expression. ' x* N$ ?) z) e8 P0 G! U- m5 a# f. z8 Z5 y1 |. _2 j
The paucity of porcine-specific reagents currently limits our ability to evaluate gene expression in cells from this species. A gene not well detected here, but of interest to the current study, is the intermediate filament nestin, a marker highly expressed by neuroepithelial cells during development. Nevertheless, the expression of many porcine genes can be detected with available reagents, presumably as a result of sufficient homology with other mammalian species, particularly human, as we have shown previously and both confirm and extend here. Therefore, despite difficulties with detection of nestin in porcine cells, we have been able to collect a range of markers that highlight the similarity of these cells to retinal progenitors from other species.. U# |+ G4 O6 N6 O1 x
4 m$ ^( S/ {* ]# m. b eThe porcine RPCs exhibit a number of similarities to forebrain progenitors from the pig, as well as forebrain and retinal progenitors from other species. The proliferation marker Ki-67 and adhesion molecule NCAM are heavily expressed across species by a broad range of CNS progenitors, as well as other cell types. The surface carbohydrate epitope CD15 (LeX) and highly conserved transcription factors Hes1 and Sox2 have been more specifically associated with immature CNS progenitors in a number of mammalian species, including mice, humans, and pigs . ( [( o; R+ d2 L: x& i& Q * ?" N: S1 L9 M$ L9 d+ I5 F6 rMarkers of neuronal development were expressed by subpopulations of porcine progenitor cells, including DCX and ¦Â-III tubulin. We have previously identified both of these cytoplasmic markers in subpopulations of cultured CNS progenitors from mouse . Hence, although there is considerable overlap in the genes expressed by CNS progenitor cells, the evidence to date supports the concept that the expression profiles of porcine CNS progenitors more closely resemble those of the human than of mouse. 6 D$ B4 w1 H, D' \7 U7 E" _8 R1 q4 X/ G1 z# H- w+ X
Compared with cells from the developing pig forebrain . Here, we show the expression of this gene by cultured RPCs from a large mammal. Although Lhx2-deficient mouse embryos are anophthalmic, the role played by this gene later in retinal development remains to be determined. Since this gene might be involved in the phenotypic specification of retinal cells, it would be of interest to know the relative co-expression of Lhx2 and other NTFs, as well as non-nuclear genes, within cultured RPC populations. 2 U8 d W9 D* R0 E7 g/ M5 E& s2 O+ H3 w. n
In previous work in porcine recipients, we showed that cultured murine RPCs can be transplanted to the subretinal space and that these cells show evidence of morphological integration into the neural retina and RPE layers and we are currently developing GFP donor cells from this source (H. Klassen, M. Young, R. Prather, unpublished data). Our current finding of widespread expression of recoverin, rhodopsin, and transducin by grafted cells suggests a relatively advanced stage of photoreceptor development. Whether these cells possess outer segments or are capable of responding to light remains to be determined.# g6 t9 c( N3 B6 b8 D) e
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The rod-like morphology seen in the present study, but not in previous work by Banin et al. , could relate to the use of embryonic stem (ES) cells by the latter investigators. ES cells require greater epigenetic specification than RPCs to differentiate into mature photoreceptors. In addition, those investigators used a xenogeneic transplantation model (human to rat) that likely provides fewer instructive cues compared with the allogeneic porcine model used here. / N& a# O" e5 Y: E# A 2 i9 n) I( N& t9 ]9 AIn terms of donor cell survival, the porcine RPCs used here proved much superior to the murine cells used previously. This can in large part be attributed to the improved immunological compatibility of the allogeneic pRPCs over the xenogeneic murine cells. Yet even in the absence of an obvious immune response, survival of grafted cells can be low following progenitor cell transplantation , and therefore the degree of survival seen here is encouraging. The reason for the variable survival seen at 5 weeks, the longest time point examined, is not clear, and the possibility of immunological attack has not been ruled out. 5 J) U. x- g, y! e! E $ W# j. G l; N2 S% o' DCONCLUSION N9 b2 j- o# `2 x8 g/ }
# `5 e4 @/ t9 {8 O: GFurther development of the porcine RPC allograft model will benefit from the use of cells constitutively expressing a reporter gene to positively identify cells of donor origin and to better evaluate the morphology of cells following engraftment. Also of interest is the application of such cells in porcine models of retinal disease, such as the pig that develops photoreceptor degeneration secondary to expression of a mutant human rhodopsin transgene . It has been proposed that porcine cells might provide a source of xenograft material for human application; however, it is evident that substantial biological challenges, including immunological incompatibility, would first need to be overcome to make this a realistic option. Nevertheless, the porcine RPC allograft model represents a useful tool for evaluating issues likely to be faced if intraocular progenitor transplantation is to find application in humans. * R2 r; R5 Z1 W0 a) t( U1 ]; a S0 {# H2 c v. h
DISCLOSURE OF POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST) j# F" i( _: X+ x3 i
2 z( t E% \, p1 c- q, @% L) }; i8 TThe authors indicate no potential conflicts of interest. ; j5 `3 y5 G( n0 z" {1 v% m8 r$ X+ l% S/ p4 ~5 W: l, A! a3 F
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS0 C3 u+ t) y3 z: w% u+ l- T
J( }) \9 I; ~" v$ CWe thank Dr. Marie Shatos, Jaqueline Doherty, Caijui Zhang, and Hubert Nethercott for technical assistance; Prof. Robert Molday for the kind gift of anti-rhodopsin antibody; and Prof. Berndt Ehinger, Dr. Morten la Cour, and Dr. Phil Schwartz for intellectual input related to this project. This work was supported by the Gail and Richard Siegal Foundation, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke NS044060 (H.K.), National Eye Institute EY09595 (M.J.Y.), Larry Hoag Foundation (H.K.), BMRC Grant 05/1/35/19/421 (H.K.), the Crown Princess Margareta's Committee for the Blind (K.W.), the Swedish Association of the Visually Impaired (K.W.), the Swedish Science Council (Medicine) (K.W.), and the Minda de Gunzburg Research Center for Retinal Transplantation (M.J.Y.).) o( ?2 Z _* h5 [5 X9 m d
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